Chapter 3 Learning
Brief Summary
Classical Conditioning
- Learning occurs when experience produces a relatively permanent change in behavior.
- Classical conditioning involves pairing an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which automatically elicits an unconditioned response (UCR), with a conditioned stimulus (CS), which is neutral at the start of conditioning. After several pairings, when the CS is presented by itself, it elicits a conditioned response (CR).
- Intense, unrealistic fears, or phobias, for certain activities, objects, or situations may be caused by classical conditioning.
- Watson and Rayner demonstrated that emotions can be classically conditioned by conditioning a child to fear a white rat. Watson’s experiment, however, would not be considered ethical by present-day standards.
- Not all UCSs result in painful or unpleasant responses. Some stimuli, such as food, when paired with neutral stimuli, result in the conditioning of a pleasant reaction such as salivation.
- When the UCS is intense and presented more frequently, stronger classical conditioning is produced.
- The classically conditioned response is eliminated or extinguished when the UCS is removed or not presented. Spontaneous recovery of the CR occurs when time is allowed to pass between extinction sessions.
- Generalization occurs when CRs are elicited by stimuli that are similar to the CS. Discrimination is the opposing process; it involves responding only to the appropriate CS.
- Learned motives and learned goals are acquired through the process of classical conditioning.
- For many species, the pairing of a novel taste with the experience of illness results in learning an aversion to that taste. Taste-aversion learning occurs readily in humans; birds, however, more readily associate a color with illness. Preparedness is evident when some species are more prepared to form certain associations than others.
Operant conditioning
- Operant conditioning occurs when an organism performs a target response that is followed by a reinforcer.
- All reinforcers increase the frequency of the response they follow. Positive reinforcers are presented after the target response has been made, and negative reinforcers are taken away after the target response has been made.
- Complex responses may be acquired gradually through the process of shaping and the use of successive approximations. Once a behavior has been acquired, it may be reinforced according to a particular schedule of reinforcement.
- When a ratio schedule is in effect, the number of responses is important. Fixed-ratio (FR) schedules require that a set number of responses be made before a reinforcer is delivered; variable-ratio (VR) schedules require that the participant perform differing numbers of responses to obtain a reinforcer.
- On an interval schedule, a certain amount of time must pass before a response is reinforced. With a fixed-interval (FI) schedule, the time interval is constant; the time interval changes after each reinforcer is delivered when a variable-interval (VI) schedule is used.
- Ratio schedules generally produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules.
- Insight learning involves restructuring our perceptual stimuli to achieve the solution to a problem. Such perceptual restructuring and solutions typically occur rapidly.
- Latent learning occurs when learning has taken place but is not demonstrated until a later time.
- Serial enumeration refers to the ability to remember a series of events correctly.
- The opposite of reinforcement, punishment decreases the rate or frequency of responding. Punishment involves either removing a positive reinforcer (negative punishment) or presenting a negative reinforcer (positive punishment).
- Operant responses that are not reinforced each time during training take much longer to extinguish than ones that have received continuous reinforcement. This phenomenon is known as the partial reinforcement effect.
- A discriminative stimulus signals that responses will be reinforced. Behavior is said to be under stimulus control when responding occurs only when the discriminative stimulus is present.
- Observational learning takes place when we observe and identify with the behaviors of others. Advertisements and television commercials appeal to this process. Televised violence may result in observational learning and lead to an increase in violent behaviors.
- Behavior modification is the application of the basic principles of learning to change or modify an undesired behavior or increase specific desired behaviors.