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Wundt and Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is credited with establishing the first psychology laboratory. Because the profession of psychology was not a career choice at that time, Wundt was originally trained as a physician. His mission in establishing the laboratory was to describe the contents of the conscious mind. Wundt and his student Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927), who brought Wundt's type of psychology to the United States, wanted to study psychology in same way that a person would study physics or chemistry. If researchers could break down the contents of the mind into basic units like the basic elements of matter in chemistry, they could identify the structure of conscious experience and describe its major components (e.g., feelings, sensations, images). This approach to psychology became known as structuralism. Wundt and Titchener's research depended on a method called introspection, in which participants gave verbal reports of their conscious experiences. For example, participants given an orange would not describe it as a fruit but would instead describe its color, shape, and texture and other aspects of their own experience of the orange. Across a variety of tasks, however, the participants had difficulty producing similar reports; this fact raised questions about the existence of any common elements of conscious experience. Structuralism was replaced by other approaches, and at times conscious experience was not even considered a legitimate subject of psychological research. In the past decade or two, psychologists have rediscovered conscious experience and investigated it using more sophisticated techniques than those available to the structuralists at the end of the nineteenth century (Gardner, 1985). Today, a rapidly growing area of psychology has extended the early interests of structuralists; it is called cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychologists are not interested in the structure of conscious experience; instead, they study higher mental processes. Their research is designed to determine how we recall information, solve problems, and make decisions.
Functionalism
A new approach to psychology developed in the United States in the late 1800s. Functionalism was concerned not with the structure of the mind but with the purposes of consciousness--what the mind does and why. One early proponent of functionalism, William James (1842-1910), was especially interested in what he termed the "stream of consciousness." Because consciousness was like a continually flowing stream, it could not be easily broken down into its elements as Wundt had hoped. If it were broken down into elements, it would lose its reality. Functionalists wanted to see how people use information to adapt to their environment. James and his functionalist colleagues were among the first applied psychologists; they were interested in the practical aspects of psychology, such as creating optimal conditions for learning or selecting the right workers for various jobs.
Gestult Psychology
A group of psychologists who termed their approach Gestalt psychology spearheaded the challenge to the structuralists' notion that conscious experience could be broken down into elements. The key members of this group were Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886-1941). The Gestalt approach started in Germany in 1912, when Wertheimer described the visual illusion called apparent motion, in which a rapid sequence of stationary images creates the illusion of movement, as in a movie (Rock & Palmer, 1990; see Figure 1-1). Soon Gestalt psychologists were describing other phenomena that supported their contention that what we perceive is different from the sum of its parts. We perceive unified forms, not bits and pieces. The German word Gestalt means "pattern," "shape," or "configuration." Not surprisingly, Gestalt psychologists have made their greatest contributions in the area of perception, as we shall see in Chapter 5.
Sigumand Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective
Historically, Skinner's approach followed the development of Watson's behaviorism. However, at about the same time that Watson was defining psychology as the study of observable behavior, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), across the Atlantic Ocean, was delving deeply beneath observable behaviors. Few individuals have had such a profound impact on the way we think about ourselves as Freud, and few have been--or remain--so controversial (Beier, 1991). Freud was trained as a neurologist, not a psychologist. The patients who came to him suffered from a variety of anxieties and other disturbances. Freud and his followers developed the psychodynamic perspective, which suggests that both normal and abnormal behavior are determined primarily by unconscious forces. The term psychodynamic is used because these forces are believed to interact with one another. Freud's experiences in treating his patients convinced him that the unconscious mind exerted great control over their behavior. Among the observations that led him to this conclusion were "slips of the tongue," in which the patients' true feelings were apparently revealed, and analysis of his patients' dreams. Freud came to believe that the mind often disguises dreams so that the dreamer is not aware of their true meaning. Freud also focused on early childhood experiences as a major influence on personality development. According to Freud, if you want to understand an individual's personality, you must examine his or her early experiences, which could have long-lasting effects. Freud gained great fame and notoriety by suggesting that people (even children) are driven by motives that are sexual in nature. In treating his patients, Freud first turned to hypnosis (see Chapter 5), but he abandoned it when he determined that not everyone could be hypnotized. The treatment approach that he eventually developed, known as psychoanalytic therapy, aims at bringing unconscious causes of distress to the conscious level. Once the sources of distress are brought to awareness, they can be changed.
The Behavioral Perspective
The behavioral perspective focuses on observable behaviors; thus it does not speculate about mental processes such as thinking. Moreover, this perspective emphasizes the importance of learning in understanding how various behaviors occur. In the early 1900s the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) was studying digestion in dogs when he noticed a curious phenomenon. When the dogs were about to be fed, they began salivating at the sight of the food or the jangling of keys used to unlock the rooms where they were kept. The dogs seemed to have learned an association between certain sounds or sights and being fed. As we will see in Chapter 7, this simple observation led to the development of our understanding of how organisms learn to associate events in their environments. An American psychologist, John B. Watson (1878-1958), read about Pavlov's work and saw great promise in it. Watson believed that psychology should be concerned not with the mind or consciousness but solely with observable behaviors. He asserted that the application of rigorous scientific principles, as used in Pavlov's laboratory, could lead to major advances. Watson developed and applied his principles in the laboratory under strictly controlled conditions. Laboratory animals made excellent subjects for his research, which he later expanded to human participants. The behavioral tradition started by Watson found many strong proponents. The most notable was B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), who has been called the "greatest contemporary psychologist" (Fowler, 1990). In some ways, Skinner's approach to psychology was simple: Behavior changes as a result of its consequences. Thus environmental consequences, and not free will, shape human behavior. The behavioral psychologist's goal is to identify and change the environmental conditions that control behavior. Skinner's followers used many of his basic principles to alter human behavior in a variety of settings (Martin & Pear, 1996). Some of Skinner's methods have been used to teach schizophrenic patients to speak after years of being mute, to improve safety in manufacturing plants, and to teach basic skills to mentally retarded individuals. If you have ever visited an amusement park that features trained dolphins, seals, whales, or other animals, you have seen an application of Skinner's principles.
The Humanistic Perspective
Many psychologists viewed the behavioral approach as cold and unappealing. The notion that all behavior is controlled by environmental circumstances left no room for personal freedom. Are we doomed to behave in environmentally determined ways? The behaviorists seemed to avoid the unique and positive qualities of human behavior, such as creativity and love. Moreover, their views of human nature were either neutral or negative. The psychodynamic approach was no more appealing because it viewed behavior as resulting from irrational forces that are not even under conscious control. Psychoanalysts studied individuals suffering from a variety of pathological problems, whereas behaviorists attempted to identify conditions that influence behavior by studying lower animals under controlled laboratory conditions. Critics argued that neither of these perspectives led to a true understanding of human behavior because neither focused on the creative potential and psychological health of human beings. As a result, a new approach to psychology developed. Known as the humanistic perspective, its hallmark was a distinctly positive view of human nature. Humanistic psychologists viewed themselves as a "third force" because they were an alternative to the behavioral and psychodynamic perspectives in psychology (De Carvalho, 1990). The proponents of this approach, notably Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), focused on the freedom that they believed characterizes human behavior. According to the humanists, human beings have choices in their lives, and we cannot understand their choices by studying either animals in laboratories or people experiencing adjustment problems. Rather than attempting to develop general principles, Rogers and Maslow sought to understand each person as a unique individual. Humanists believe that each person experiences the world differently. One of the most important humanistic principles is that all human beings have a basic need to grow to their fullest potential. The humanists' major contributions to psychology have been their dramatically different view of human nature and a variety of psychotherapeutic techniques that they developed.
The Phychological Perspective
As we will see in Chapter 3, every behavior of human beings and animals is related to some physiological change within the body. These physiological changes are the focus of psychologists interested in the physiological perspective. Physiological psychologists have a special interest in the functioning of the brain and the rest of the nervous system. They now use sophisticated equipment that can create images of the brain. These imaging techniques reveal differences in the functioning of various areas of the brain depending on the task given to an individual. Physiological psychologists also study how our nerve cells, called neurons, communicate with one another through special chemical substances called neurotransmitters. Scientists have identified a number of different neurotransmitters; each seems to play special roles in a variety of normal and abnormal behaviors. Most drugs influence our emotions and behaviors by altering levels of these neurotransmitters in the body. In recent years physiological psychologists have shown a special interest in the influence of heredity on personality characteristics, abilities, and the potential for developing certain abnormal behavior patterns. A number of psychologists are examining the wide range of physiological changes that occur when we are under stress. Their research has determined that whether we become ill is not just a function of the presence of disease-causing viruses or bacteria. More and more, psychologists are investigating how personal factors such as how we deal with stress can influence our health status.
The Cognitive Perspective
Because they focused only on observable behaviors, the behaviorists did not study cognitive processes--such as thinking, memory, and determining how material is organized and stored in the mind--as part of the mainstream of psychological research. Consequently, from the 1920s to the 1960s psychologists gave little research attention to these processes. However, not all psychologists agreed that observable behavior should be the sole subject matter of psychology. For example, the Gestalt psychologists advocated the study of cognitive processes. Psychologists George Miller and Jerome Bruner established the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard University in 1960, and Ulrich Neisser published the book Cognitive Psychology in 1967. The appearance of a widely read article supporting the study of cognitive processes (Lieberman, 1979), combined with the ability of the computer to simulate human thought processes, generated considerable interest and research. Many psychologists have accepted the cognitive perspective and currently conduct research in the area of cognitive processes. These different perspectives are summarized in the Study Chart. You should review this material at this time.
Present Day Psychology
Psychologists today are interested in a diversity of the topics. In fact, there are few endeavors that would not interest at least one of the more than half a million psychologists in the world (Rosenzweig, 1992). Present-day psychologists do not align themselves strictly with any of the approaches we outlined in our discussion of the origins of psychology. Instead, they tend to choose the approach that they consider appropriate to each issue under consideration. Because they use several approaches, many psychologists have adopted an eclectic approach to psychology. Most psychologists earn an advanced degree, usually a doctorate. In a number of states a person cannot assume the title of psychologist unless he or she meets certain standards of education and training set by a state board. Psychologists all over the world are working to establish legal status for their profession. Their purpose is to protect the public by ensuring that individuals who represent themselves as psychologists have appropriate training and professional experience. Walk down the halls at a major meeting of psychologists and you are likely to be surrounded by dozens of different types of psychologists. Most work in colleges and universities, where they may teach, conduct research, or work in a psychological clinic sponsored by the university.
The presence of women and minority psychologists provides a vivid contrast with the Caucasian, male -dominated field of only a few years ago. Psychology is becoming more diverse, but this was not always the case. In the past, numerous barriers limited access to the field, especially for women and ethnic minorities. For example, Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) completed her work at Harvard University, where she was a student of William James, but the university refused to award the doctoral degree she had earned because it did not grant degrees to women (Furumoto, 1979). Despite this setback, Calkins had a distinguished career in teaching, founded one of the first psychology laboratories in the United States, and was the first woman to be elected president of the American Psychological Association (Madigan & O'Hara, 1992). In some cases marital status and family ties hindered the careers of pioneer female psychologists. For example, the noted researcher Christine Ladd-Franklin "was not considered a suitable candidate for any regular academic position" because she was married (Furumoto, 1992, p. 180). Similarly, the tradition of the eldest daughter taking care of her aging parents cut short the budding career of Milicent Shinn, the first woman to receive a Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in 1898. Shinn had established herself as a leading expert on the mental and physical growth of infants. She seemed poised for an eminent career in psychology until her parents' illness forced her to return to her family farm (Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987). Her career stopped completely at that point and was never resumed. A century after Harvard refused to award Calkins a doctoral degree, women are entering the field of psychology in great numbers
Women outnumber men two-to-one as undergraduate psychology majors and now earn more doctoral degrees in psychology than men. The struggle of racial minorities to become recognized professionals parallels that of the early women psychologists. Robert Guthrie (1976) summarized the struggles of African-American psychologists in his influential book Even the Rat Was White. For example, he indicates that professional training was not an option for black Americans during the late 1800s and early 1900s. It wasn't until 1920 that Francis C. Sumner became the first African American to achieve a Ph.D. in psychology. Until recently, few members of racial minority groups obtained jobs in psychology. Today, the number of minority candidates receiving doctoral degrees and finding employment in psychology is increasing (Howard, et al., 1986). In fact, in 1970 the American Psychological Association elected an African American, Kenneth B. Clark, as its president. An Asian American, Richard Suinn, ran a close second for this position in 1995. Overall, however, racial and ethnic minorities remain underrepresented in the psychology profession.
Although all psychologists share a keen interest in advancing our knowledge of human and animal behavior through research, some psychologists, by choice, engage in little or no research. A rapidly growing number of psychologists have entered what are termed health service provider or direct service specialties (A. Howard et al., 1986). These psychologists are interested primarily in the applications of psychology. The largest specialty in psychology is a direct service one, clinical psychology.
Clinical and Counseling Psychology
A majority of students who major in psychology are interested in the work done by clinical psychologists. More and more students want to "work with people." Although most psychologists work with people in one way or another, clinical psychologists specialize in helping people with behavioral or emotional problems adjust to the demands of life. Clinical psychologists are frequently confused with psychiatrists (Murstein & Fontaine, 1993). Members of these two professions share an interest in diagnosing and treating people who are experiencing various behavioral and emotional problems. However, clinical psychologists and psychiatrists differ in the degrees they obtain and in other aspects of their training. After completing an undergraduate degree, clinical psychologists earn a doctoral degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.), which usually takes 4 or more years. They then complete an internship of at least 1-year to develop their diagnostic and therapeutic skills; during this time they are supervised by experienced clinical psychologists. In contrast, psychiatrists are medical doctors; they have earned an M.D. degree. After graduating from medical school, they complete a three-year residency, often at a major mental hospital. Although some aspects of the training of clinical psychologists and psychiatrists are similar, there are major differences. For example, psychiatrists are trained in the medical assessment of disorders and hence are more likely to view the disorders as caused by medical conditions. Their treatments reflect this medical orientation --they are likely to prescribe drugs to alleviate their patients' symptoms. A specialty that has much in common with clinical psychology is counseling psychology. One difference between clinical and counseling psychologists involves the types of clients they see. Counseling psychologists often work with clients who have less serious problems than those of patients seen by clinical psychologists. For example, the counseling psychologist is more likely to deal with a physical handicap or a vocational decision.
Other Specialties
Many people believe that psychologists are engaged exclusively in providing diagnostic and therapeutic services to sufferers of mental disorders; however, there is a wide range of specialties beyond clinical and counseling psychology. For example, you may hear the term experimental psychologist used to describe psychologists who conduct experiments on learning, motivation, and physiological processes. Because many different types of psychologists conduct experiments, the term research psychologist is more appropriate. Often you will find research psychologists dividing their duties between conducting research and teaching at a college or university.
School psychologists
School psychologists are employed by school systems as consultants to other educational personnel. They may administer psychological tests to evaluate problems in academic skills or conduct evaluations of behavioral and emotional problems experienced by school-age children (Shapiro & Ager, 1992).
Industrial and organizational psychologists
Industrial and organizational psychologists (also known as I/O psychologists) are concerned with all aspects of work and the structure and function of organizations. Their responsibilities vary with the employer, but they may be asked to design a system for selecting employees or to implement an employee assistance program to deal with alcoholism, drug abuse, and stress both on and off the job. Once new employees are hired, I/O psychologists may assist in designing and evaluating programs to train them for their new jobs. In addition, they may be asked to design methods to measure worker productivity, increase worker motivation, evaluate work schedule efficiency, or design systems for resolving disputes within organizations (Katzell & Austin, 1992). Some I/O psychologists are involved in the design of equipment and manufacturing plants. When they design equipment, they take into consideration the relationship between the worker and the equipment and also the capabilities of the worker. These psychologists are also called human factors psychologists, and they work in a specialty that is called ergonomics.
Consumer Psychology
Consumer psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of consumers (Mullen & Johnson, 1988). Although your last purchase of a portable cassette player or a hair dryer may have seemed like an unremarkable event, such apparently casual events provide the basis for consumer psychologists' questions. They may want to know how you became aware of the product, how you went about evaluating various brands, or what made you select a particular brand.
Health Psychology
A recent addition to the list of psychology's specialties is health psychology. This diverse and rapidly growing specialty is concerned with the relations between psychological factors and health. Health psychologists work to promote health and prevent illness; they study the causes and treatments of illness and the ways people cope with their illnesses (see Chapter 9). They also investigate ways to reduce risk for disease by changing unhealthy or harmful behaviors (Taylor, 1990). For example, they may investigate the effects of exercise on cholesterol levels and subsequent heart attacks. Because stress is an ever-present part of our lives, health psychologists also try to increase our understanding of the factors related to stress and to discover ways to alleviate its negative consequences. For example, health psychologist Tom Boll is using psychological tests and other measures to select potential heart transplant patients who are best able to handle the stress of the operation (De Angelis, 1992).
Emerging Specialties
Forensic psychologists
Forensic psychologists work within the legal system; they may work for a prison to evaluate incoming prisoners or assist in selecting a jury for a trial. Carefully wording the questions asked of prospective jurors can help identify potentially biased jurors, who can then be excused from service (Cutler, Moran, & Narby, 1992; Goodman, Loftus, & Greene, 1990). Forensic psychologists also provide testimony as expert witnesses. For example, Elizabeth Loftus has testified many times about how stress affects the accuracy of recalled events, how observing violent crimes affects eyewitness identifications, or how police lineups can sometimes lead witnesses to an incorrect identification of a suspect (Loftus, 1991).
Sport psychologists
Sport psychologists apply the theories and knowledge of psychology to enhance athletes'performance (Mahoney, Gabriel, & Perkins, 1987). They may consult with coaches about the use of specific coaching techniques or provide supportive therapy and encouragement to players recovering from injuries. They help athletes improve their performance by using techniques such as relaxation and imagery (Murphy, 1990). (Athletes who use imagery learn to visualize aspects of their sport to improve their performance.) Since 1978, sport psychologists have been part of the team of experts who help U.S. athletes prepare for the Olympics. The 1990s have been designated the "decade of the brain," so it is not surprising that one of the emerging specialties in psychology is concerned with brain functioning (see Chapter 2).
Neuropsychologists
Neuropsychologists are trained to diagnose disorders of the brain. Using various tests, they try to identify specific brain areas that may be malfunctioning. They also conduct research to identify early symptoms that predict the development of disorders such as Huntington's disease (Diamond et al., 1992). They also devise rehabilitation programs to help patients regain as much of their abilities as possible after suffering brain damage, strokes, or traumatic brain injury (Diller, 1992). Neuropsychologists are trained to diagnose disorders of the brain. Using various tests, they try to identify specific brain areas that may be malfunctioning. They also conduct research to identify early symptoms that predict the development of disorders such as Huntington's disease (Diamond et al., 1992). They also devise rehabilitation programs to help patients regain as much of their abilities as possible after suffering brain damage, strokes, or traumatic brain injury (Diller, 1992).
[ Chapter 1 Supplement ] [ Chapter Slides ] [ Know for Test ] [ Review Test ] [ Chapter Notes ] [Chapter Summary]