[ Chapter 1 Supplement ] [ Chapter Slides ] [ Know for Test ] [ Review Test ] [ Chapter Notes ] [Chapter Summary]
2. The case of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the photographs of alleged fairies teaches us the importance of asking good questions and demonstrates the importance of being aware of how bias can influence the questions we ask and the conclusions we draw.
3. When there are two (or more) competing explanations for an event or claim, the law of parsimony indicates that we should select the one requiring the fewest assumptions. Applying this law to Kreskin’s claims of mentalism leads us to conclude that he does not have special mental powers; he understands how people think.
4. By asking good questions, collecting useful data, and arriving at appropriate conclusions, we can become good consumers of psychological research.
5. In evaluating research claims, we need to know exactly what the claim is and who is making it. Authority figures often have great credibility, but their expertise does not transfer from one field to another, and their pronouncements should not be accepted uncritically.
6. Also determine if the claim is based on scientific observations. Conclusions based on systematic and empirical observations of large samples are stronger than those based on personal testimonials of a few individuals.
7. Understanding and using statistics is a great aid in evaluating claims. Useful measures include three types of averages. Psychologists usually report the likelihood that their findings might have resulted from chance alone.
8. We need to realize that a relationship between two events does not prove that one of the events caused the other. We should consider alternative explanationthat might account for a particular event or claim.
9. Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes.
10. The history of modern psychology began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. The goal of Wundt’s school of psychology, known as structuralism, was to identify the elements of conscious experience by using the method of introspection.
11. Another perspective, which came to be known as functionalism, focused on the purposes of consciousness and was especially concerned with the applications of psychology. Gestalt psychology is concerned primarily with our perception of our environment. Cognitive psychology studies higher mental processes such as decision making and problem solving.
12. Influenced by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson was interested in how the environment affects behavior. Because consciousness cannot be observed directly, Watson defined psychology as the study of observable behavior. The behavioral perspective was continued by B. F. Skinner, probably the best known and most influential psychologist of our time.
13. Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective focused on unconscious determinants of behavior. Freud also developed a treatment approach known as psychoanalytic therapy.
14. Dissatisfaction with both the behavioral and the psychodynamic perspectives led psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers to develop the humanistic perspective. Humanists believe that other perspectives pay too little attention to uniquely human characteristics such as free will and individual perception.
15. The physiological perspective focuses on the underlying biological bases of all forms of behavior.
16. Psychology has begun to recognize the contributions made by women and minorities, and additional contributions from these groups can be expected in the future.
17. Most psychologists have earned a doctoral degree (Ph.D. or Psy.D.).
Although many psychologists teach and engage in research, a growing number provide direct services to clients.
18. The goals of psychology are to describe, predict, and control behavior.
These goals are accomplished by using the scientific method, which is systematic and empirical.
19. A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single person or event. Although the findings of a case study may apply only to the individual who was studied, they may provide direction for further study using other methods.
20. To study behavior in real-life settings, psychologists often use naturalistic observation. This technique also may suggest research projects using more controlled approaches. In using naturalistic observation, the observer must be unobtrusive and avoid influencing the behavior being observed.
21. A correlation coefficient tells whether the values of two variables are related. Although correlational methods do not inform us about causality, they can provide useful insights and help us make predictions.
22. By asking questions of a representative sample, the survey method can provide useful information about a much larger population. The wording of the questions can influence participants’ responses.
23. Because it can generate cause-and-effect statements, many psychologists feel that the experimental method is the most powerful research approach. By manipulating an independent variable (the cause), the researcher determines whether it affects the dependent variable (the effect).
24. Ethical considerations guide decisions about research with both human and animal participants. The American Psychological Association has established ethical guidelines for the use of both types of research participants.
[ Chapter 1 Supplement ] [ Chapter Slides ] [ Know for Test ] [ Review Test ] [ Chapter Notes ] [Chapter Summary]